Social Organization and Culture
The following material is extracted from Chapter 2 of my doctoral thesis (Chong, 2013). Other primary sources of reference are listed under a seperate page
TRADITIONAL SOCIAL ORGANISATION
The following description of the different classes within Kenyah society is derived from the writings of various researchers based on observations of Kenyah society in the 19th century and earlier part of the 20th century. At that point in time, many of the the Central Bornean ethnic groups were highly stratified. This description is not representative of the modern day Kenyah.
Previously, traditional Kenyah society consisted of three different classes:
(i) kelunan ketau/deta’u , the elite or dominant aristocracy, further subdivided into: paren: those of pure aristocratic descent and paren iot/dumit: lower aristocrats
(ii) panyin (or panyin tiga ): commoner
(iii) panyin lamin : descendants of war captives/slaves.
In their complex class system, only the aristocrats could inherit political power. Only paren were entitled to wear prestige symbols in the form of specific designs, motifs, feathers and teeth of animals. The tiger (lenjau) in all its manifestations is the ultimate symbol of the paren (Whittier, 1973:162–163). It occupies an important position in Kenyah and Kayan mythology, even though it is not part of Borneo’s fauna (Rousseau, 1990:62; Munan, 2005:66).
Baby carrier for male paren child in Long Moh showing lenjau and kalong kelunan motifs (hand-crafted by Ulau Lupah )
Paren were expected to have certain traits and talents, in keeping with their nobility. Gorlinski (2005: 10) observed that one genre of songs, the narrative kerintuk, is exclusively sung by paren men. These are the songs which narrate the deeds of legendary characters of paren lineage. The people of Long Moh strongly believe that the gift of kerintuk was bestowed on them by the bali tekena’ (story-spirits) dwelling at Batu Luyok, a rock-formation located at the headwaters of the Moh river.
TRADITIONAL WORLDVIEW AND BELIEF SYSTEM
Adet pu’un
Until the early 20th century, the Kenyah universally practiced adet pu’un, their traditional religion. In the Kenyah-Kayan cosmos, the world was divided into major regions: that of daily life and the spirit (bali) country. The latter consisted of two sections, one occupied by non-human, named spirits, and the other, the after-world .These spirits were responsible for the welfare and prosperity of humans (Rousseau, 1998). Spirits often manifested themselves to men who can sing poetic praise songs (belian bali) skillfully. In Long Moh, the existence of many sambe bali dayong melodies (played to me by the late Lian Langgang) and ritual jatung rhythms with names such as Lenjau Tugau attest to the reverence accorded to these spirits.
Christianity and Adet Bungan
In 1947 the Bungan cult, started by a Lepo’ Jalan Kenyah, Jok Apui, became popular throughout the Apo Kayan. Adet Bungan, a radical reform of adet pu’un, gave importance to one single female deity, Bungan Malan, Adet Bungan was introduced to the Balui in 1948 and to the Baram in the 1950s where it came into direct competition with Christianity. Eventually Christianity (first introduced in 1913) gained the upper hand in the 1960s, except for a few bastions, such as Long Moh (where Adet Bungan was the dominant religion until the 1990s when the majority converted to Christianity).
TRADITIONAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEM
For centuries, the main agricultural activity in traditional Kenyah communities has been swidden agriculture, with dry rice as the basic subsistence crop. Besides rice, they also cultivated subsidiary crops such as sugar cane, cassava, corn, betel nut and fruits. Cash crops such as rubber are cultivated sporadically, depending on the market price. Other economic activities include hunting, fishing, rearing of pigs and poultry and collection of jungle produce. Hunting is carried out at night with the aid of dogs. Packs of scrawny hunting dogs are a visible feature in upriver Kenyah longhouses such as Long Moh. The importance of canine participation is reflected in the term for hunting: tai ngasu (literally ‘go with dog’). The most sought-after prey is babui (wild boar). Payau (deer) is the next most popular target as a meat source.
Visual Arts and Crafts
Kenyah craftsmen in the past were a specialized class who were exempt from subsistence food production. Their services were paid for from the surplus in the community. They turned out superb swords, spears and shields and performed services such as boat-making and painting of murals for rice-barns and rooms. Breath-taking murals, such as the “Tree of life” (the original design adorns the chief’s residence in Long Nawang) which was reproduced for the Sarawak Museum by Tusau Padan are testament to the high degree of sophistication and aesthetic achievement of Kenyah artists.